Acetone

What is the chemical formula of nail polish remover?

The chemical formula of nail polisher remover is dependent upon the ingredients in the mixture. Nail polish remover base commonly contains a mixture of two organic solvents acetone and ethyl acetate.

Acetone belongs to a group of organic molecules called ketones or alkanones. The proper name acetone is propanone. It is also sometimes called 2-propanone.

Acetone is an organic liquid that is colorless, flammable and is often used as a solvent as it is completely miscible with water and nearly all other organic liquids. Acetone has a low boiling point 56.5 °C or 134 °F and readily vaporizes and has a distinctive odor.

The molecular formula for acetone is C₃H₆O. The condensed structural formula of acetone is OC(CH₃)₂ and its complete structual fromula is shown by the diagram below.

Ethyl acetate belongs to a group of organic molecules called esters or alkyl alkanoates. The proper name for ethyl acetate is ethyl ethanoate. The molecular formula of ethyl acetate is C₄H₈O₂ and its complete structural formula is shown by the dirgam below.

Low molecular weight esters such as ethayl ehtanoate are commonly used as solvents.

Acid rain

Raining vinegar

In some places in world the rain water has become so polluted with chemicals that it is like vinegar. This type of rain is called acid rain.

Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7.

Natural rain water is slightly acidic mainly because of dissolved CO₂ which produces carbonic acid or H₂CO₃

H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) <==> H₂CO₃(aq)

The pH of unpolluted rainwater ranges from pH 5 to 6.

Acid rain is rain water with a pH of less than 5. 

In some parts of the Northern Hemisphere the pH of the rain water has been as low as 2!

Acid rain is caused by caused by industrial pollutants.

The main industrial gases responsible are SO₂ and NOx (a mixture of NO and NO₂).

Major sources of industrial sulfur dioxide.

SO₂(g) comes from mining smelters and the burning of coal.

i) The roasting of minerals releases SO₂(g) from
Metal sulfide + oxygen ==> Metal oxide + SO₂(g)

ii) Electrical power stations that burn coal produce sulfur dioxide from the sulfur impurities in the coal.

S(s) + O₂(g) ==> SO₂(g)

The SO₂(g) combines with water to produce sulfurous acid.

H₂O(l) + SO₂(g) ==> H₂SO₃(g)

Note: Sulfur dioxide is not readily oxidized to sulfur trioxide in dry clean air. Water droplets and dust particles however, catalyse the reaction between O₂ and SO₂ in the air producing sulfur trioixde, SO₃.This dissolves in water and produces sulfuric acid which is a much stronger acid. This can cause considerable damage to buildings, vegetation and fish populations by destroying fish eggs.

SO₂(g) + ½O₂(g)  ==> SO₃(g)
H₂O(l) + SO₃(g) ==> H₂SO₄(aq)

Source of nitrogen oxides

Sources of NOx are more widespread. Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule and is fairly inert because its triple bond. However, at temperatures over 1300°C, nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide.  

 N₂(g) + O₂(g)   2NO(g)
 

These high temperatures can be achieved by
i) the internal combustion engine (human activity)
ii) lightning in the atmosphere (natural source)
 

The nitrogen monoxide slowly combines with oxygen to form soluble nitrogen dioxide gas. 
 

 2NO(g) + O₂(g) => 2NO₂(g)
 

Nitrogen dioxide readily dissolves in water producing a mixture of nitric and nitrous acids.

 2NO₂(g) + H₂O(l) ==> HNO₃(aq) + HNO₂(g)
 

Acidic rain is mainly caused by atmospheric pollutants of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
 

The chemical formula of acidic rain is dependent upon the type of acids present. Acidic rain is a complex mixture of nitrous, nitric, sulfurous and sulfuric acids which all combine to lower the pH.

Air

Air is made up of a mixture of gases.The major component of air is nitrogen gas followed by oxygen

The first two gases nitrogen and oxygen make up 99.0% of the atmosphere by volume.

Nitrogen is fairly inert because of its strong triple bond holding the atoms together in the molecule.

Oxygen gas is produced by photosythesis and removed by combustion and respiration.

Alcohol

There are many different types of alcohol. The proper name for alcohol is alkanol. The main functional group of alcohols (alkanols) is the hydroxyl or -OH group. Alcohols differ in the number of carbons atoms in the molecules and with the placement of the -OH group in the molecule.

The most common alcohol is ethanol which is commonly produced by fermentation.

Name of alcohol	Chemical formula of alcohol	Structure of alcohol
methanol	CH3OH
ethanol	CH3CH2OH or C2H5OH
propan-1-ol	CH3CH2CH2OH or C3H7OH
propan-2-ol	CH3CH(OH)CH3

Ammonia

Ammonia is a colorless gas which has a strong irritating and very alkaline in nature. Ammonia is used in industry as a refrigerant and in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate. Domestically, ammonia is widely used as a cleaning agent.
 

The chemical formula for ammonia molecule is NH₃

One nitrogen atom is covalently bonded to three hydrogen atoms.

Ammonia is extremely soluble is water and produces ammonium hydroxide

NH₃(g) + H₂O(l) ==> NH₄OH(aq)

The molecular mass or molar mass of ammonia is 17.0306 g/mol

Ammonium

The ammonium ion is a postively charged ion or cation and has the chemical formula, NH₄⁺

Ammonium salts are commonly used in fertilizers. Examples of compounds containing the ammonium ion include, ammonium nitrate, NH₄NO₃ and ammonium sulfate, (NH₄)₂SO₄

All ammonium salts are soluble in water and dissociate or break down to produce aqueous ammonium ions.

eg.  ammonium nitrate ==> ammonium ion + ntirate ion

               NH₄NO₃(s) ==> NH₄⁺(aq) + NO₃^-(aq)  where aq = aqueous (surrounded by water) and s = solid

The ammonium ion is formed by the neutralization of the base ammonia, NH₃ with and acid

Ammonia + Nitric acid ==> Ammonium nitrate

NH₃ + HNO₃ ==> NH₄NO₃

Ammonia + Sulfuric acid ==> Ammonium sulfate

NH₃ + H₂SO₄ ==> (NH₄)₂SO₄

The ammonium ion has one co-ordinate covalent bond which involves the nitrogen atom donating two electrons in one of the N-H bonds.

NH₃ + H⁺ ==> NH₄⁺

Aspirin

What is the chemical formula for aspirin?

Aspirin is a white crystalline powder with a melting point of 135°C.

The common chemical name for aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid. Its systematic name is 2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid.The chemical formula of aspirin is C₉H₈O₄ and the atoms are arranged according to the following diagram.

or

Aspirin is commonly used as a medicinal drug to relieve headaches, minor pains and fevers. It also helps prevents blooding clotting but it higher doses may cause ulcers in stomach and the gastrointestinal tract.

Baking soda

The proper chemical name for sodium bicarbonate or baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Sodium bicarbonate is a white powder which is commonly used as an antacid and in cooking as a leavening agent as it reacts with acidic ingredients such as buttermilk and yogurt. It is also used for cleaning and as a deodorizer. It is a very weak base and may be used as an ingredient in toothpaste.

Bicarb of soda can also neutralize both acids and bases due to its amphoteric nature and is often used to mop up small chemical spills involving invloving acidic or basic substances.
 

The chemical formula for sodium bicarbonate is NaHCO₃

The molecular mass or molar mass of sodium bicarbonate is 84.007 g/mol

Baking soda vigorously reacts with vinegar to produce carbon dioxide gas. The chemical equation for the reaction is

Sodium bicarbonate and vinegar => Sodium acetate and water and carbon dioxide

NaHCO₃ + CH₃COOH => CH₃COO^-Na⁺ + H₂O + CO₂

Butane

Butane gas is a hydrocarbon and belongs to the alkane series which are all saturated with hydrogen and have no double or triple bonds. The chemical formual for butane is C₄H₁₀

The complete structural formual of butane is shown below.

Butane is used for in portable burners and in cigarette lighters.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a stimulant and is naturally found in coffee beans and tea. The molecular formula for caffeine is C₈H₁₀N₄O₂ and its molar mass is 194.19 g·mol⁻¹

The chemical formula for caffiene is best represented by its structural formula which can be seen below

In its pure form caffeine forms a white powder with needle like crystals which has no odor.

Carbon dioxide

What is dry ice?

Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide and is commerically avaiable as solid dry ice in blocks or pellets.

The white vapor that is seen coming off from dry ice is in fact condensed water vapor from the air.

Carbon dioxide at normal room temperature and pressure is an odorless, colorless gas that is denser than air. The melting point of carbon dioxide is −56.6 °C or −69.9 °F

Dry ice sublimes on melting. It does not produce a liquid. The carbon dioxide gas changes directly from the solid state to the gaseous state.

The chemical formula for carbon dioxide is CO₂. One carbon atom is covalently bonded to two oxygen atoms in a linear arrangement. Each atom of oxygen is joined to a carbon atom by a double covalent bond.

Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels and by the process of cellular respiration.

Carbon dioxide is also essential for the process of photosynthesis in the manufacture of sugars by plants.

Chemical formula of acid

There are many different types of acids. Acids taste sour, turn blue litmus paper pink and have a pH pf less 7.

Some acids are very corrosive like sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. These acids can cause damage to the skin, eyes and clothing. They also vigorously react with active metals such as magnesium, zinc and iron producing hydrogen gas and salts

Some acids are very weak like the organic food acids. Acetic acid or vinegar, citric acid and malonic acid are all used in cooking. Lactic acid is found in yogurt and sour cream.

Some common acids are their uses.

Name of acid	Chemical formula of acid	Uses of acid
Sulfuric acid	H2SO4	Used in car batteries
Hydrochloric acid	HCl	Also called muriatic acid. Used to lower the pH of swimming pools and to clean the cement off bricks. Found naturally in the stomach.
Nitric acid	HNO3	Used to make ammonium nitrate fertilizer. Also used to make explosives like trinitrotoluene (TNT) and nitroglycerine which is the explosive ingredient in dynamite.
Acetic acid or vinegar	CH3COOH	Used in cooking and as a condiment for flavor.
Citric acid or 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid		Found in citrus fruits like lemons and oranges. Used in cooking and as as a food flavoring ingredient.

Citric acid

Why are lemons sour?

Lemons are sour because they each contain a chemical called citric acid.

Citric acid is a weak organic acid found in citrus fruits like grapefruit, oranges, limes and lemons.

In its pure form citric acid is a white crystalline solid and is sour to taste like all food acids. It is sold as a food addictive for cooking and can be found in most supermarkets.

The IUPAC or systematic name for citric acid is 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid. The molecular formula of citric acid is C₆H₈O₇

The chemical formula for citric acid is best shown by a diagram of its complete structural formula. This shows how the atoms are arranged in the molecule

Citric acid has three carboxyl or - COOH groups and is tripotic in nature. It weakly dissociates in water producing a weak acidic solution.

Citric acid(aq)   ==> citrate ions + H⁺(aq)
  92.1%                      7.9%            7.9%

The pH of a 0.1 M solution of citric acid is 2.1

Copper sulfate

Copper sulfate is blue in color in its crystalline form and produces beautiful diamond shaped crystals.

The chemical formula of hydrous copper sulfate is CuSO₄.5H₂O which is often abbreviated to CuSO₄ especially when balancing chemical equations.

Hydrous means 'with water'. Each of the pairs of copper sulfate ions in the cyrstal are surrounded by five water molecules.

Technically, CuSO₄ is refers to anhydrous copper sulfate which is produced by heating blue copper sulfate. Anhydrous means "without water'. Anydrous copper sulfate is gray-white in color and readily changes back to blue color by adding water.

Diamond

A wedding ring of soot?

Diamond, graphite and soot are all made of carbon atoms. So on your wedding day why not save money and buy a cheaper wedding ring made from soot?

Well, you may need to learn a bit of chemistry to help your marriage survive!

The chemical formula of diamond is C which is the chemical symbol for the element carbon. Soot and graphite are also made up of carbon atoms and have the same chemical symbol, C. So what's the difference between soot, graphite and diamond if they are all made up of the same carbon atoms?

Carbon atoms can be arranged in many different physical forms called allotropes.

An allotrope is a form of an element that has different physical properties (eg. colour, crystal shape, hardness, melting points,  boiling points, etc.) due to different arrangements of atoms or molecules within the structure.

Four allotropes of carbon are diamond, buckminsterfullerene (bucky balls), graphite and soot. Since all are forms of the element carbon, they each have the same chemical symbol C.

The allotropes of carbon however, differ greatly in their structure and properties.

In diamond the carbon atoms are covalently bonded to one another producing a three dimensional network solid. Each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms throughout the crystal lattice.

Diamond has no free electrons because they are all involved in bonding and is therefore a poor conductor of electricity.

Diamond is the hardest substance known and is used to cut glass and in industrial drill bits. Diamond is widely sought after because of its rarity and unique cystalline structure and is used in jewellery.

Graphite is also made of carbon atoms. Graphite consists of carbon atoms covalently bonded together in a layers made up of hexagons, like chicken wire.

Each carbon atom has three bonds and one free electron. The extra electrons are delocalised and can be moved along the layers by applying an external voltage.This is why graphite can conduct an electric current.

Graphite unlike diamond is extremeley soft. Between the parallel layers of graphite are weak intermolecular bonds, which allows the layers to easily slip over each other. This is what happens when writing or drawing with a graphite pencil on paper.

Buckminsterfullerene (a bucky ball for short) is an allotrope of carbon that is produced by firing high powered laser beams at graphite. Each molecule consists of a large number of carbon atoms covalently bonded to one another forming a sphere (similar to a soccer ball).

Soot has no crystalline structure and is amorphous in form. It is a carcinogenic (cancer forming) pollutant produced by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, particularly gasoline or petrol and diesel fuels .

So the key to a successful marriage is to buy the correct allotrope of carbon for a wedding ring. It's not just the atoms that are important. It's how they are arranged!

Ethanol

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol is commonly called alcohol. Ethanol in its pure state is a colorless flammable liquid which is completely miscible with water. Ethanol is made from the fermentation of sugars from agricultural crops such as 1. barley used to make beer or 2. grapes used to make wine. The process of distillation is used to concentrate the ethanol to around 95% which is the maximum that can be achieved by this process. Molecular sieves are used to produce 100% ethanol. Ethanol produced from crops or biomass material is known as bioethanol. Ethanol may also be produced by the hydration of ethylene gas from the petroleum industry.

The complete structural formula for ethanol is shown in the diagram below.
 

The chemical formula for ethanol is CH₃CH₂OH or C₂H₅OH (condensed structural formulas)

The molecular formula fro ethanol is C₂H₆O and its molar mass is 46.068 g/mol.

Pure ethanol is used as solvent for esters, medicines, solvent based paints and perfumes. It is also used as a cleaning product (methylated spirits).

Glucose

Glucose is a crystalline white powder which is very soluble in water. It is a carbohydrate and a monosaccharide sugar. The chemical formula for glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆

The structural formula of glucose is

Glucose sugar is used as fuel by our bodies and is converted into energy through the process of cellular respiration.

Glucose and oxygen ==> Carbon dioxide and water and energy

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ ==> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy

Hydrogen peroxide

How hydrogen peroxide sunk a nuclear submarine

The chemical formula of hydrogen peroxide is H₂O₂ which looks similar to water. Its properties however, are completely different. Hydrogen peroxide is commonly used as an antiseptic and to lighten or bleach hair.

Hydrogen peroxide is commonly sold in chemists at a concentration of 3 to 5% with water. It is stored in brown bottles to protect it from decomposing from light.

In industry hydrogen peroxide is commonly available at a 30-35% concentration. High test peroxide which is used as a propellant can be up 98+% concentration.

Well, how could this chemical sink a nuclear submarine?

Hydrogen peroxide readily decomposes when in contact with a catalyst to produce oxygen gas and water. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction.

The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is shown by the following chemical reaction.

Hydrogen peroxide =catalyst=> Oxygen and water

2H₂O₂ =catalyst=> O₂ + 2H₂O

The hydrogen peroxide was used to provide a source of oxygen for the fuel in the torpedoes in many Russian submarines. Hydrocarbon fuels don't burn underwater. They need a source of oxygen.

Hydrocarbon (fuel) + oxygen ==> Carbon dioxide + water + energy

The Russian Type 65 torpedo uses high test peroxide and kerosene and can reach a maximum speed of 50 knots or 93km/ hr

On August 12, 2000 during a routine naval exercise the K-141 Kursk primed one of its torpedoes to fire a dummy load.

It is thought that during the delay in firing some of the high test peroxide (HTP) propellant leaked and reacted with the copper and brass fittings. This acted like a catalyst producing oxygen and steam inside the torpedo causing a massive  build up in pressure and causing the torpedo to explode. 

Source: BBC New theory for Kursk sinking
 

The explosion in turn created a fire in the torpedo room. Before the sailors could extinguish the fire a second explosion ripped through the front hull of the submarine in the torpedo room producing a fatal hole. This sadly led to the deaths of all 118 officers and crew.

Methane

Chemical formula for methane

Methane is a colorless highly flammable gas that is less dense than air. The methane molecule consists of four hydrogen atoms covalently one carbon atom.

The chemical formula for methane is CH₄ which is the simplest hydrocarbon of the alkane series. The molar mass of methane is 16.043 g/mol

Methane is a major component of natural gas and is also produced from by anaerobic bacteria in septics and in the digestive systems of animals.

Methane readily undergoes combustion producing carbon dioxide and water.

Methane + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water + energy

CH₄ + 2O₂ ==> CO₂ + 2H₂O + energy

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants using light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose sugar and oxygen gas through a series of reactions. The overall equation for photosynthesis is

carbon dioxide + water ==> glucose + oxygen

6CO₂ + 6H₂O ==> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
 

Photosynthesis is carried out in the chloroplasts of plant cells using the green pigment chlorophyll. The glucose produced is converted into starch. Starch is a polymer made up of repeating glucose units.

Plaster of Paris

What is plaster of Paris?

Plaster of Paris is made by heating the mineral gypsum. Large deposits were originally found outside of Paris in France hence its name. When gypsum is heated to about 150°C it losses water and produces the powder, plaster of Paris

Gypsum  =heat=> Plaster of Paris + steam

2CaSO₄·2H₂O =heat=> 2CaSO₄·½H₂O + 3H₂O

When water is added to the plaster of Paris powder it rehydrates (absorbs water) and quickly hardens.

Plaster of paris + water ==> Gypsum

2CaSO₄·½H₂O + 3H₂O ==> 2CaSO₄·2H₂O + heat

Plaster of Paris can be used for casts to hold broken limbs in place, modelling casts, sculptures and in plasterboard walls and ceilings, commonly called Gyprock.

Large amounts of plaster of Paris placed directly onto the skin can cause serious burns because of the heat produced! 

The chemical formula for plaster of Paris is CaSO₄·½H₂O which means that there are two molecules of water around each CaSO₄ group.

Rust

What is rusting?

Corrosion is the loss of metallic properties of a metal due to oxidation and is accompanied by the formation of unwanted products. Copper, iron and aluminum metals all corrode over time loosing strength, lustre and electrical conductivity.

The rusting of iron

Rusting is the corrosion of iron and readily occurs in the alloy steel. The formation of a reddish brown flakes which loosely adheres to the iron is called rust. 

Steel is an alloy made of iron and carbon.  The carbon atoms in steel greatly increase the strength of the metal. They prevent the iron atoms in the crystal lattice from slipping over one another.

Steel is widely used in the manufacture of cars, white goods and the construction industry because it is mucj stronger than iron.

The carbon atoms in steel however, greatly decrease the ability of iron to resist corrosion.

In the presence of oxygen and water a series of internal galvanic cells or batteries are created. The carbon impurities become the site of reduction.

Reduction half equation: 4e^- + 2H₂O(l) + O₂(g) ==> 4OH^-(aq)

The nail is most easily oxidised at points of stress. ie the tip or the head. At these points the crystal lattice is distorted and the iron atoms are easily oxidised.

Oxidation half equation: 2Fe(s) ==> 2Fe²⁺(aq) + 4e^-

The overall or net equation is

2Fe(s) + 2H₂O(l) + O₂(g) ==> 2Fe²⁺(aq) + 4OH^-(aq)

Fe²⁺(aq) and OH^-(aq) ions migrate through the water by diffusion. Refer to the above diagram. When they meet they combine to produce the preciptate, iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)_2, which is further oxidised to iron (III) hydroxide, Fe(OH)₃, and finally dehydrated to produce rust.

The chemistry of the reaction resulting in the formation of rust can be summarized as follows.

The chemical equations for rust formation

1. 2Fe(s) + 2H₂O(l) + O₂(g) ==> 2Fe²⁺(aq) + 4OH^-(aq)
2. Fe²⁺(aq) + 2OH^-(aq) ==> Fe(OH)₂(s)
3. Fe(OH)₂(s)  =O₂=> Fe(OH)₃(s)
4. Fe(OH)₃(s) =dehydrates=>  Fe₂O₃.nH₂O(s) or rust

The chemical formula for rust is Fe₂O₃.nH₂O
 

Salt

Chemical formula for salt

Salt is an ionic compound formed by the action of an acid on a substance. There are many different types of salts.

The most common salt is sodium chloride, NaCl or table salt, and is made up of the elements sodium and chlorine.

Sodium

Sodium

Sodium is an element. It is found in Group I of the Periodic table, the alkali metals. Sodium has a low density which is less than water and is very soft. You can cut sodium with a knife.

The chemical formula of sodium is Na. The symbol is dervived from the Latin name natrium.

Sodium reacts violently with water producing hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide.

Sodium and water ==> hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide

2Na + 2H₂O ==> H₂ + 2NaOH

Sodium metal is stored in paraffin oil to prevent it from reacting with mositure from the air.

Sodium metal is easily oxidized and forms the sodium ion, Na⁺ when it reacts with other substances. This sodium ion is highly soluble in water and produces a distinctive yellow/ orange flame and emission spectral line when viewed with a spectrophotometer.This is caused by excited electrons in the sodium falling back to a lower energy level an emitting light energy in the process.

Sodium carbonate

Sodium carbonate is a white crystalline powder which is commonly called soda ash or washing soda. Sodium carbonate is used in industry in the manufacture of glass. It is also used as detergent booster to soften hard water and as a household cleaner. It is mildly basic in strength.

The chemical formula for sodium carbonate is Na₂CO₃

The molecular mass or molar mass of sodium carbonate is 105.99 g/mol

Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide or caustic soda has the chemical formula of NaOH.

Na is the symbol for sodium after its latin name 'natrium'. OH is the symbol for hydroxide. The word caustic means 'burns'

Sodium hydroxide is a white solid and is available in pellet of powder forms. It is extremely caustic and should be handled with caution. When dissolved in water it produces heat as the reaction is exothermic (produces heat). If sodium hydroxide comes in contact with the skin or clothing wash immediately off with water as NaOH is soluble in water.

Sodium hydroxide is a strong base or alkali (soluble base). It is commercially available and is used to dissolve fats and to make soap. Many oven cleaner and drain cleaner products contain sodium hydroxide.

Solid sodium hydroxide ionizes in water to produce spdium and hydroxide ions. Ions are charged particles.

NaOH(s) ==> Na⁺(aq) + OH^-(aq) + heat

where the symbol (aq) is short for aqueous and (s) is short for solid

Sucrose

Chemical formula for sucrose

Sucrose or common table sugar is a sweet white cystalline solid often used as a food additive.

The chemical formula for sucrose is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ and its molar mass is 342.30 g/mol. The solublity of sucorse in water at 20 °C is 211.5 grams /100 mls.

The structural formula for sucrose is reprented by the following diagram

Sucrose is a made up of the two simple sugars glucose and fructose which are joined togther by a chemical bond known as a glycosidic bond.

Sucrose is a disaccharide sugar. During the digestive process the sucrose molecule is broken down into the two monosaccharides glucose and fructose which can be easily absorbed through the villi of the intenstine.

Sucrose      + water =hydrolysis=> Glucose + Fructose

C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ +  H₂O =hydrolysis=>  C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆

Sugar

Chemical formula for sugar

Sugar is white cystalline solid group of soluble carbohydrates that are sweet tasting in nature. These sugar molecules include glucose, sucrose, lactose, fructose, maltose, lactose and galactose. Sugar molecules are classified as monosaccharides or disaccharides.The following table lists the common sugar molecules are their chemical formula.

The monosaccharides glucose, galactose and fructose all have the same molecular formula but they vary in their molecular structure.

The three common disaccharides lactose, sucrose and maltose also have the same molecular formula but differ in their structural formula

Lactose is also known as ‘milk sugar’ because it is primarily found in dairy products. Lactose intolerance is a genetic disorder which affects many people who lack the enzyme necessary to break down lactose into glucose and galactose. This prevents lactose being absorbed by the body.

Sucrose is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beet and is commonly called table sugar.

Sulfuric acid

Sulfuric acid in its pure form is a colorless viscous liquid commonly called oil of vitriol

The chemical formula for sulfuric acid is H₂SO₄ and it is commerically available as a 96-98% solution or 18M H₂SO₄.

Concentrated sulfuric acid is covalent in nature as the acid is unionized. The atoms in the molecule are covalently bonded to one another. In this form sulfuric acid can be transported in stainless steel tankers.

If concentrated sulfuric acid is added to water the reaction is extremely exothermic due to formation of hydrogen ions.

H₂SO₄(l) ==> H⁺(aq) + HSO₄^-(aq)  First ionisation

HSO₄^-(aq) ==> H⁺(aq) + SO₄^2-(aq) Second ionisation

Sulfuric acid is made from elemental sulfur or from its compounds by converting them to sulfur dioxide. 

S + O₂ ==> SO₂

Sulfur + oxygen ==> Sulfur dioxide

SO₂ + O₂ ==> SO₃

Sulfur dioxide + oxygen ==> Sulfur trioxide

SO₃ + H₂SO₄ ==> H₂S₂O₇

Sulfur trioxide + sulfuric acid ==> Oleum

H₂S₂O₇ + H₂O ==> 2H₂SO₄

Olem + water ==> Sulfuric acid

The direct addition of water to sulfur trioxide is too violent. That is why the sulfur trioxide is dissolved in sulfuric acid to form oleum. The oleum is then added to water to produce sulfuric acid.

Vinegar

Chemical formula for vinegar

 Vinegar is composed of about 5% acetic acid. This is the major chemical component of vinegar.

The systematic or proper chemical name of acetic acid is ethanoic acid.

Vinegar is a weak acid produced by the oxidation of alcohol (ethanol) from wines and ciders by bacteria. It has a pleasant sour taste and is used in cooking or as a condiment. It is commercially sold as white vinegar, brown vinegar, cider vinegar and balsamic vinegar.

The complete structural formula of acetic acid is as follows.

The condensed structural formula for acetic acid (the main component in vinegar) is CH₃COOH.

This formula is a shorthand way of representing the complete structural formula (see above picture).

The first carbon atom is surrounded by three hydrogen atoms. The second carbon atom is surrounded by one oxygen atom and a OH group. Hence it's formula is CH₃COOH

The molecular mass or molar mass of acetic acid is 60.05 g/mol

See also facts about vinegar

Water

Water is a simple compound with a set of unique properties that are essential for life.

The chemical formula for water is H₂O and its proper chemical name is dihydrogen monoxide. Water contains two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen. The ratio of these elements determines the molecular formula.

When broken down by electrolysis water produces two parts hydrogen gas to one part oxygen gas. 2H₂O(l) =electrolysis=> 2H₂(g)  + 1O₂(g)

Water is an excellent solvent for ionic compounds like salt and for polar compounds like sugar. In living things water allows materials to dissolve and interact in the many chemical reactions which take place in cell that are essential life. eg. Cellular respiration.

Water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C at 1 atmosphere pressure.

As a solid water forms a hexagonal arrangement between the water molecules and takes up more space than when a liquid. This means that ice is less dense than water and floats to the top. When a lake freezes, it freezes at the surface first producing a protective layer which insulates the water below and helps preserves life below.
 

Ice

The oxygen atom in the water molecule is surrounded by four pairs of electrons which repel each other producing a tetrahedral arrangement. Two of the pairs of electrons are bonded to hydrogen atoms and the other two pairs of lone electrons are unbonded.

This means that the water molecule is not linear. Water is a V-shaped molecule and is highly polar in nature.